Did the religious and romantic images of the knight civilise the medieval warrior class or simply justify its violence?
Whilst the romantic images of the medieval knight civilized his behaviour, the religious idea of the 'just cause' and the Christian knight fighting for good justified the warrior's violence. As the crusades glamorised the 'knights of Christ', romantic literature shows us a picture of the knighthood seeking to soften its warrior harshness with lessons of courtesy and learning. This adoption of courtesy, coupled with the growing spread of literacy and the idea of the just cause, was a primary motive for the civilizing of medieval knights.Maurice Keen identifies the 'age of chivalry' as having lasted from the launch of the first crusade until the Reformation. In the earliest of medieval texts chivalry was literally a collective of chevaliers, but as the concept of chivalry grew, the interpretations expanded: sometimes going so far as to be spoken of as an order, as if knighthood were comparable to a religious order. As the ethos of chivalry became imbrued into medieval society, the image of the chivalric knight became a fusion of martial, aristocratic and Christian elements. This fusion became a way of life for those who were ordained as Knights of the Realm.
The earliest of medieval texts describe the role of the knight as being protection of the Church: chivalry was armed force in service of the truth. As the Church emphasized more and more the idea of a Christian Knighthood, the prestige of the medieval knight soared. At the same time, the crusades glamorised the 'knights of Christ', and fictional knights such as Tristan, Gawain and Perceval became heroes of high medieval literature. Raoul de Houdenc described chivalry as "the fountain of courtesy … it came from God, and knights posses it," the implication being that chivalry and courtesy were specific to knights.
Fundamentally, the Church detested war and violence. In the words of Christ, "They that take the sword shall die by the sword." The Church hated war, but had to recognise its existence and therefore tolerate and even justify it. The concept of the 'just war' was born of this idea. "There is righteous war," says St Augustine, "When one proposes to punish a violation of right … war has to be endured, but man must long for peace." Later, St Leo IV justified Christian violence by saying, "War is bad, but since it is inevitable one must justify those who make war honestly and simply for the advancement of that which is right." Chivalry stemmed from a custom idealised by the Church and was a value rather than an institution. It was the Christian form of the military profession, and the knight was the Christian soldier.
Thus the violence of the warrior class was not only justified by the Church, but became an acceptable part of everyday life. Being unable to prevent war and violence, the Church Christianised the soldier and his actions. In a famous letter by St Bernard to the Knights of the Temple, Bernard describes the violent actions of the knights as "the chastisement of the wicked and for the glory of the good."
They can fight the battles of the Lord and can be of a surety the soldiers of Christ. Let them kill the enemy or die; they need have no fear! To embrace death for Christ or to cause his enemies to submit to it is naught but glory - it is no crime! Moreover, it is not without reason that the soldier of Christ carries a sword; it is for the chastisement of the wicked and for the glory of the good. If it bring death to the malefactor, the soldier is not a homicide but a malicide! And we must recognise in him the avenger who is in the service of Christ, and the liberator of the Christian people.
Violence became a civil action, a service to God and country, and men of the sword were cheered and celebrated for their actions.At the same time as the Clergy were idealising Christian Knighthood, romantic literature was flourishing, particularly in Aquitaine and Provence, celebrating military prowess and courage in battle, loyalty, honour and endurance. Duke William IX is generally credited today with popularising the concept of courtly love, a revolutionary notion in the twelfth century. Inspired by the culture of the East and the erotic works of Ovid, he began writing poems of a sensual nature, celebrating female beauty and carnal delights: previously literature had been in the form of the epic, a form of writing where females were relegated to the background whilst the exploits of men were glorified. Duke William's court of Poitiers became known throughout Europe for the new trend in literature, and by the end of the twelfth century Poitiers was the foremost cultural centre in France.
Romance and history around 1200 show us a picture of the knighthood seeking to soften its warrior harshness with lessons of courtesy. Early stories tell us of proud, arrogant youth being sent to court in order to learn virtue and chivalry. Educated clerics began writing treatises instructing knights in the art of love: attempting the transformation of rough-cut, unpolished, boastful knights into gentle, learned lovers. This adoption of courtesy, coupled with the growing spread of literacy, became an underlying cause in the civilizing of medieval knights. As the push for civility and courtesy took swing, so to did the argument for harmonising of learning and chivalry:
For many, chivalry does not preclude learning, nor does knowledge of letters in a moral cause preclude chivalry. But in a prince the combination of both is useful, so fitting … that a prince whose mind is not ennobled by the knowledge of letters degenerates in no small degree from his proper state and becomes like a rustic boor or even a beast.
Here, the Abbot of Bonne-Esperance provides an example literacy and courtliness being hand in hand. Gradually, literate knights became patrons of courtly literature.As the popularity of courtly romance over took the traditional epics of violence and battle, a synthesis of the warrior and the statesmen occurred, bringing together the knight and the courtly cleric as one learned, accomplishedindividual. From the second half of the twelfth century onwards, literary heroes represented the harmonising of warrior violence and courtliness; "The knight remained an efficient engine of death and destruction in combat, but at court and in the presence of ladies his soul was strung as finely as a harp". This is strong evidence for religious and romantic images of chivalry both justifying the violence of the warrior class and civilizing the medieval knight.
Jean de Marmoutier offers a portrait of Geoffrey the Fair in the third continuation of the Angevin Chronicles. In it, both warrior and courtier qualities come together to present a picture of the perfect knight. He is not only the perfect courtier, civilised in every aspect, but also shows clemency when waging 'civil warfare', thus satisfying both the church and the court.
Supreme in military glory, his fortune was equal to his industry; he was devoted to chivalric, courteous combat and to liberal studies; the provider of a just love, excellent to his friend …. His speech was jocund, his precepts admirable and amiable …. This man was quite adept in arms, and, so to speak, most wise in his simplicity; generous to all, noble of build, with a beautiful and ruddy face, lean and sinewy body, flashing eyes …. He was therefore gentle, gracious, of a most mild spirit; he bore offences and injuries patiently and clemently; upon hearing abuse heaped upon him, he ignored it patiently. He was amiable and jocund to all men alike, but especially to knights; and there was so much goodness and kindness in him that those whom he subjected by arms he conquered even more through clemency.
Marmoutier's portrait resolves the warrior, the learned man and the courtly gentleman into the chivalric knight. It is also no coincidence that Marmoutier's audience was the court of Geoffrey the Fair's son, and Eleanor of Aquitaine - granddaughter of Duke William IX.Evidence suggests that the flourishing popularity of the chivalric knight as a union of warrior, clerical and courtier qualities, civilized the knightly class. In addition, the Church's assertion of warrior violence as being a 'just cause' and 'for the glory of good' effectively justified the violence of the medieval knight.
Bibliography
Richard Barber The Knight and Chivalry (Ipswich, 1970)
Maurice Keen Chivalry (Great Britain, 1984)
Linda M. Paterson The World of the Troubadours (Cambridge, 1993)
John Frederick Rowbotham The Troubadours and Courts of Love (London, 1895)
Stephen C. Jaeger The Origins of Courtliness (Philadelphia, 1985)
Chivalry Ed., Jacques Levron, Trans., D.C.Dunning (London, 1965)
G.P.R. James, Esq. History of Chivalry (London, 1830)
Jasmine of Blessed Herman